Suggested sources: Hermitage Museum, Inner Mongolia Museum
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匈奴 Xiōngnú
The first great nomadic empire to challenge China:
Rose to power in the 3rd century BCE under leader Maodun
United many tribes into a powerful confederation
Controlled territory from Manchuria to Central Asia
Some scholars believe they may be ancestors of the Huns who later invaded Europe
Their challenge forced China to develop new military and diplomatic strategies
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單于 Chányú — The Supreme Leader
The title of the Xiongnu ruler:
Selected for military prowess, not purely hereditary
Led the confederation in war and peace
Received tribute from subordinate tribes and (for a time) from China
The most famous was Maodun (r. ca. 209–174 BCE), who nearly captured Liu Bang
The Xiongnu Military Advantage
Revolutionary military technology:Mounted archery—the ability to shoot arrows while riding horseback at full gallop.
Xiongnu Advantages
Speed and mobility
Every man a warrior from childhood
No cities to defend (or capture)
Could retreat into the steppe
Knew the terrain
Han Advantages
Larger population
Greater resources
Infantry and siege weapons
Fortifications (walls)
Administrative capacity
From the textbook: "Especially awesome from the Chinese perspective was the ability of nomad horsemen to shoot arrows while riding horseback."
Early Han Policy: The Heqin System
Background: The Disaster at Baideng (200 BCE)
Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang) led army against Xiongnu
Surrounded by Xiongnu cavalry for seven days
Barely escaped—humiliating defeat
The Heqin ("Peace and Kinship") Policy
Sent Chinese princesses to marry the chanyu
Provided annual "gifts" (essentially tribute)
Silk, grain, wine, and other luxury goods
Established border markets for trade
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The Siege of Baideng (白登之圍, 200 BCE)
A turning point in Han-Xiongnu relations:
Liu Bang personally led 320,000 troops against the Xiongnu
The chanyu Maodun pretended to retreat, drawing Liu Bang forward
Then surrounded him with 400,000 cavalry on a hill called Baideng
Trapped for seven days with no relief
Escaped only through diplomatic trickery (bribing Maodun's wife)
This disaster convinced the Han that they couldn't defeat the Xiongnu militarily—leading to the heqin policy.
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和親 Héqīn — "Peace and Kinship"
A diplomatic arrangement that was essentially paying tribute to avoid war:
Chinese view: Generous gifts to barbarians, Chinese princess as bride
Xiongnu view: Tribute from a subordinate state
Both sides could interpret it in ways that preserved their dignity
Practically effective—reduced raiding for decades
But deeply humiliating to Han pride
Emperor Wu would eventually reverse this policy and pursue military confrontation.
⏸ Pause & Process
Partner Activity
Compare the Xiongnu and Han:
With a partner, identify:
TWO advantages the Xiongnu had in their conflicts
TWO advantages the Han had in their conflicts
Which side do you think had the overall advantage, and why?
Take 3 minutes to discuss, then we'll share.
Emperor Wu's Aggressive Turn
Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE) reversed the heqin policy
Launched major military campaigns against the Xiongnu
Key generals: Wei Qing and Huo Qubing
Led cavalry armies deep into the steppes
Results
Drove Xiongnu out of Ordos region (loop of Yellow River)
Pushed them north of the Gobi Desert
Extended Han control into Central Asia
But: Campaigns were enormously expensive. The Han never fully defeated the Xiongnu—the conflict would continue for centuries.
Zhang Qian's Mission
Zhang Qian (張騫)
139 BCE: Emperor Wu sent him west
Goal: Find the Yuezhi people
Form alliance to attack Xiongnu from two sides
Captured by Xiongnu—held for 10 years!
Eventually escaped and continued his mission
Reached Bactria and Ferghana
IMAGE PLACEHOLDER Dimensions: 700x400px
Search terms: "Zhang Qian Silk Road map"
"Han Dynasty Central Asia exploration"
"张骞出使西域"
Suggested sources: National Geographic, Cambridge History of China
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張騫 Zhāng Qiān (d. 114 BCE)
The explorer who opened China's connection to Central Asia:
Sent on a diplomatic mission in 139 BCE
Captured by Xiongnu almost immediately
Held captive for about 10 years—married a Xiongnu woman, had children
Escaped and continued west to find the Yuezhi
Finally returned to China in 126 BCE after 13 years
Made a second journey in 115 BCE
Though his diplomatic mission failed, his reports opened Chinese eyes to the wider world.
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月氏 Yuèzhī (or Yuezhi)
A nomadic people who were enemies of the Xiongnu:
Originally lived in the Gansu corridor (northwest China)
Defeated by the Xiongnu and driven westward
Eventually settled in Bactria (modern Afghanistan/Uzbekistan)
Later known as the Kushan Empire—major Buddhist patrons
Emperor Wu hoped the Yuezhi would want revenge against the Xiongnu—but by the time Zhang Qian found them, they had no interest in returning to fight.
What Zhang Qian Discovered
The diplomatic mission failed—the Yuezhi had no interest in fighting the Xiongnu.
But Zhang Qian brought back crucial intelligence:
Other civilizations existed to the west (Parthia, India)
Trade was already occurring—he saw Chinese silk in Central Asian markets!
The "heavenly horses" of Ferghana were superior to Chinese horses
Potential allies and trading partners existed beyond the Xiongnu
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The Heavenly Horses of Ferghana
Ferghana (in modern Uzbekistan) was famous for its horses:
Larger and faster than Chinese horses
Chinese called them "heavenly horses" (天馬 tiānmǎ)
Emperor Wu became obsessed with obtaining them
104–102 BCE: Han armies conquered Ferghana to get the horses
The horses were thought to "sweat blood" (probably a parasite)
The Ferghana campaign shows how far Emperor Wu was willing to go for military advantage—and how the search for horses helped open the Silk Road.
The Silk Road Opens
Zhang Qian's reports inspired Emperor Wu to expand westward
104–102 BCE: Han armies conquered Ferghana for horses
Han established military colonies and protectorates in Central Asia
Trade routes secured by Chinese garrisons
IMAGE PLACEHOLDER Dimensions: 1800x350px
Search terms: "Silk Road trade routes map Han Dynasty"
"ancient Silk Road map China Rome"
Key features: Show routes from Chang'an through Central Asia to Parthia and Rome
Suggested sources: Cambridge History of China, National Geographic, UNESCO
The Silk Road emerged as a network connecting China → Central Asia → Persia → Rome
What Traveled the Silk Road
Going West from China →
Silk (primary luxury)
Lacquerware
Bronze mirrors
Paper (later)
Porcelain (later)
Coming East to China ←
Horses (Ferghana)
Gold, silver, gems
Glass
Wool textiles
Exotic animals
New Foods to China
Grapes
Pomegranates
Walnuts
Sesame
Coriander
Most importantly—Ideas:Buddhism entered China via the Silk Road (1st century CE)
Borderlands and Expansion
Southern Expansion
Into what is now southern China and northern Vietnam
Indigenous peoples conquered and incorporated
Chinese settlers moved south along rivers
Garrisons and counties to assimilate frontiers
Korean Peninsula
108 BCE: Established commanderies in northern Korea
Lelang Commandery near modern Pyongyang
Spread Chinese writing, culture, institutions
Lasted for centuries
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樂浪郡 Lèlàng Commandery
A Han outpost that transmitted Chinese culture to Korea:
Established 108 BCE near modern Pyongyang
Center of Chinese administration in Korea for over 400 years
Archaeological finds show luxury goods from China
Spread Chinese writing, bureaucratic practices, and material culture
Korean kingdoms would later adopt Chinese-style government
Intellectual and Religious Currents
Han Confucianism
Not identical to original Confucianism
Dong Zhongshu synthesized with:
Yin-yang theory
Five phases (wuxing)
Cosmic resonance
Natural disasters = Heaven's warning to emperor
Popular Religion
Belief in spirits, ghosts, afterlife
Elaborate tomb furnishings
Divination and lucky/unlucky days
Buddhism arrives via Silk Road (1st century CE)
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Buddhism Arrives in China
The beginning of a religious transformation:
Buddhist missionaries and merchants came via the Silk Road
First arrived during the 1st century CE
Initially attracted little attention—seen as a foreign religion
Would grow dramatically during the Period of Division (after Han)
Eventually became one of the "Three Teachings" alongside Confucianism and Daoism
We'll discuss Buddhism's impact in Chapter 4 on the Period of Division.
⏸ Pause & Process
Quick Write
Consider Emperor Wu's expansion policies:
Wars against Xiongnu, conquest of Central Asia and Korea, opening the Silk Road...
Question: Were the benefits of expansion worth the costs?
Consider: military expenses, trade revenues, cultural exchange, long-term consequences
Take 3 minutes to write your thoughts.
The Decline of the Han
Problems of the Later Han (Eastern Han)
Land concentration: Wealthy families accumulated estates; peasants lost land
Eunuch vs. scholar-official factions: Bitter struggles for influence at court
Weak emperors: Often young, manipulated by eunuchs or consort families
Tax base eroded: Powerful families evaded taxes; burden fell on remaining farmers
"During the Eastern Han period, eunuchs were able to build a base of power within the palace, with the result that weak emperors became their captives rather than their masters."
— Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China
The Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 CE)
Massive peasant uprising inspired by Daoist religious movement
Followers of the Way of Great Peace
Rebels wore yellow scarves (symbolic of earth element replacing fire/Han)
Hundreds of thousands of followers rose simultaneously
Consequences
Government suppressed the rebellion—but at a cost
Had to rely on regional warlords who raised their own armies
Warlords became increasingly powerful and independent
Central government lost control
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The Way of Great Peace (太平道 Tàipíng Dào)
A Daoist religious movement that sparked the rebellion:
Founded by Zhang Jue (or Zhang Jiao)
Promised healing through faith and confession of sins
Believed a new age of "Great Peace" was coming
Yellow symbolized earth (replacing fire/Han in five phases theory)
Organized followers into military units
Planned simultaneous uprising across the empire
The rebellion failed militarily but fatally weakened the Han government.
The End of Han
189 CE: Civil war erupted at the capital
Eunuchs massacred by military officers
Warlords fought for control of the emperor
Capital Luoyang sacked and burned
220 CE: Last Han emperor abdicated
China fragmented into the Three Kingdoms (魏 Wei, 蜀 Shu, 吳 Wu)
China would not be reunified for nearly 400 years (until the Sui Dynasty in 589 CE)
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The Three Kingdoms (三國, 220–280 CE)
After the Han collapsed, China split into three competing states:
Wei (魏): North, based at Luoyang—strongest and most populous
Shu (蜀): Southwest (Sichuan)—founded by a distant Liu family relative
Wu (吳): Southeast—controlled the Yangzi valley
This period was later romanticized in the famous novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三國演義)—one of the "Four Great Classical Novels" of Chinese literature.
The Han Legacy
Why the Han Matters
1. LongevityOver 400 years—established China as a lasting civilization2. IdentityChinese still call themselves "Han people" (漢人); characters are "Han characters" (漢字)3. GovernanceConfucian scholar-officials became the norm for 2,000 years4. TerritoryHan borders roughly define "China proper"5. ConnectionSilk Road connected China to the wider world
Key Terms Review
Society
Corvée labor
Scholar-gentry
Ban family
Land concentration
Xiongnu & Silk Road
Xiongnu
Chanyu
Heqin policy
Zhang Qian
Silk Road
Ferghana horses
Decline & Fall
Lelang Commandery
Yellow Turban Rebellion
Three Kingdoms
Wei, Shu, Wu
Key Questions for Reflection
Was Han expansion beneficial or costly in the long run?
How did the combination of Confucianism and Legalism shape Chinese government?
What patterns do we see in the Han that will repeat in later dynasties?
How did the Silk Road change China—economically, culturally, religiously?
Looking Ahead: The Period of Division
Buddhism transforms China, north and south develop differently, and new peoples enter the Chinese world.
Chapter 3 Summary: Qin-Han China
Lecture 1: Qin unified China through Legalism and force—but collapsed in 15 years
Lecture 2: Han learned from Qin's mistakes, adding Confucian legitimacy to create a durable system
Lecture 3: Han society, the Xiongnu challenge, and the Silk Road connection to the wider world
The Big Picture:
The Qin-Han period (256 BCE–220 CE) established the template for Chinese imperial civilization: centralized bureaucracy, Confucian scholar-officials, the concept of a unified China, and connection to the wider world via the Silk Road.