HIST 270: History of China

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秦 Qín — The State of Qin

Located in the northwest (modern Shaanxi province), Qin was considered a semi-barbaric frontier state by the more "civilized" eastern kingdoms.

• Name possibly derived from a type of grain or horse breeding
• The word "China" may derive from "Qin" (pronounced "Chin")
• Originally one of many small states, it grew through military conquest and administrative reforms

The Rong (戎) and Di (狄) Peoples

Non-Chinese peoples on China's northwestern frontiers during the Shang and Zhou periods.

• Economy similar to Chinese settlements: millet agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting
• Many groups were eventually incorporated into northern Zhou states
• Qin's constant conflicts with them created a battle-hardened military
• By the 7th century BCE, many had moved toward nomadic pastoralism

Lord Shang (商鞅 Shāng Yāng, d. 338 BCE)

Prime minister of Qin who implemented sweeping Legalist reforms:

• Originally from the state of Wei
• Transformed Qin from a backward frontier state into a military powerhouse
• Created a meritocratic system where commoners could rise through military achievement
• His reforms were so effective (and so harsh) that he was eventually executed by the very system he created when he fell from political favor

The ultimate irony: Lord Shang was killed by his own laws.

Han Feizi (韓非子, ca. 280–233 BCE)

The greatest Legalist philosopher, who synthesized earlier Legalist thought:

• Argued that human nature is selfish and must be controlled through laws and punishments
• Believed rulers should use "techniques" (術 shù) to control officials
• Ironically, was killed by his fellow student Li Si, who saw him as a rival

Li Si (李斯, ca. 280–208 BCE)

The architect of the Qin Empire's administrative system:

• Designed the system of commanderies and counties that replaced feudalism
• Advocated for standardization of writing, weights, and measures
• Proposed the burning of books to control thought
• Later executed during the succession crisis after the First Emperor's death—killed by the eunuch Zhao Gao whom he had helped rise to power

Another irony: Li Si was destroyed by the very system of palace intrigue he had helped create.

秦始皇帝 Qín Shǐhuángdì

Breaking down the title:

• 秦 Qín — The state/dynasty name
• 始 Shǐ — "First" or "Beginning"
• 皇帝 Huángdì — "Emperor" (a new term he created)

He expected his successors to be numbered: Second Emperor, Third Emperor, and so on "for ten thousand generations." The dynasty lasted only to the Second Emperor.

Commanderies and Counties (郡縣 jùnxiàn)

The empire was divided into approximately 36 commanderies, each subdivided into counties:

• Commandery (郡 jùn): Larger administrative unit with an appointed governor
• County (縣 xiàn): Local unit with an appointed magistrate
• All officials appointed by the central government, not hereditary
• Officials rotated to prevent building local power bases

This system replaced the feudal system of hereditary lords and became the basis for Chinese administration for over 2,000 years.

匈奴 Xiōngnú

A powerful nomadic confederation that would challenge China for centuries:

• By the 7th century BCE, northern peoples had moved to nomadic pastoralism
• Lived in tents "that could be taken down and moved north in summer and south in winter"
• Herds were tended on horseback; "everyone learned to ride at a young age"
• Revolutionary military technology: the ability to shoot arrows while riding horseback
• At Zhou's end, three main groups: Eastern Hu, Xiongnu (Ordos), Yuezhi (west)

Some scholars believe the Xiongnu may be ancestors of the Huns who later invaded Europe.

Meng Tian (蒙恬)

One of Qin's most successful generals:

• Led the campaign against the Xiongnu in 215 BCE
• Drove them out of the Ordos region (the loop of the Yellow River)
• Oversaw massive construction projects in the north
• Built forty-four roads and fortified towns
• Coordinated the connection of defensive walls

Sima Qian (司馬遷, ca. 145–86 BCE)

China's most famous historian, who wrote during the Han Dynasty:

• Author of the Records of the Grand Historian (史記 Shǐjì)
• Comprehensive history from mythical times to his own era
• Writing about 100 years after the events he describes
• As a Han historian, he had reasons to portray Qin negatively

Source question: How reliable is this account? What biases might it contain?

The Succession Conspiracy

When the First Emperor died far from the capital, Li Si and Zhao Gao:

• Kept his death secret (even continued bringing meals to his carriage)
• Forged an imperial edict naming the younger son as heir
• Sent forged orders to Prince Fusu commanding him to commit suicide
• Fusu obeyed—demonstrating the absolute power of imperial edicts

The conspiracy succeeded in the short term but doomed the dynasty. Prince Fusu was more moderate and might have reformed the system.

Chen Sheng (陳勝) and Wu Guang (吳廣)

These two commoners became unlikely revolutionaries:

• Were leading 900 conscripts to garrison duty
• Heavy rains made them late—a capital offense under Qin law
• Chen Sheng reportedly said: "When death is the only penalty for being late or for rebellion, why not rebel?"
• Their revolt failed within months, but it triggered a chain reaction

Chen Sheng would later be honored as a hero who challenged tyranny.

項羽 Xiàng Yǔ (232–202 BCE)

• From the old Chu aristocracy—his grandfather was a famous general
• Won dramatic military victories against Qin forces
• Famous for his strength—legends say he could lift a bronze cauldron
• But he was also cruel and made many enemies
• Divided the empire among 18 kings—recreating the old chaos

劉邦 Liú Bāng (256–195 BCE)

• Started as a minor local official (village headman)
• No military training or aristocratic background
• Skill: recognizing and using talent—surrounded himself with capable people
• Would become Emperor Gaozu, founder of the Han Dynasty

His rise from commoner to emperor became a model for later dynasties—proof that the "Mandate of Heaven" could pass to anyone worthy.