HIST 270: History of China

Chapter 2, Lecture 3

Daoism, Legalism & The Intellectual Legacy

Radical Alternatives and the Winning Strategy

Dao in Confucian Thought

For Confucians, the Dao is the moral Way of human civilization at its best.

The Way of the Sages

Modeled on ancient wise rulers
Preserved through tradition and ritual
Learned through education and study

A Social and Ethical Path

Expressed in family roles and duties
Practiced through Ren and Li
Creates harmony in society

You walk it by becoming a better person and fulfilling your roles well. The Confucian Dao is built through culture, character, and moral effort.

What Is "Daoism"?

A Complicated Category

Daoism (also spelled "Taoism") includes:

Philosophical texts (Daodejing, Zhuangzi)
Religious traditions (priests, temples, rituals)
Practices (meditation, alchemy, martial arts)
Folk traditions (gods, spirits, feng shui)

⚠️ Important Corrective:

Western scholars once separated "philosophical Daoism" from "religious Daoism." Current scholarship sees these as intertwined aspects of one tradition.

Laozi — The Old Master

A Legendary Figure

Name means "Old Master" — possibly a title, not a name
Traditional story: archivist who left civilization
Historical person? Probably not — or a composite
What matters: the Daodejing, not the biography

Legend says Laozi wrote the Daodejing at the western border before disappearing from history.

Click for the full legend →

The Daodejing (道德經)

Classic of the Way and Virtue

Compiled 4th–3rd century BCE (not by one author)
About 5,000 Chinese characters — very short
81 brief chapters of poetry and paradox
Most translated Chinese text after the Bible

Key insight: This isn't a philosophical treatise. It's poetry. It's meant to unsettle, not explain.

What does the title mean? →

Reading the Daodejing

Expect Paradox

"The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao.
The name that can be named is not the eternal name."

— Daodejing, Chapter 1

This isn't mystical obscurantism. It's making a point: ultimate reality exceeds language.

The moment you define the Dao, you've limited it. The moment you think you've grasped it, it's slipped away.

Symbolic representation of the Dao as swirling cosmic patterns

The Dao as cosmic order—fluid, ever-changing, and interconnected

Dao (道) — The Way

The Dao is the fundamental pattern of the universe:

Source and sustainer of all things
Ineffable—transcends human comprehension
Total spontaneity and incessant transformation
Not a god to worship, but a way to align with
Underlying unity of all existence

"There was something formless yet complete, that existed before heaven and earth... I do not know its name; I call it Dao."

— Daodejing, Chapter 25

WHAT IS DAO? The Dao (道) is the ultimate, underlying force that governs everything in the universe. It's closer to "Nature" or "the way things work" than to "God." But it's not just physics—it has normative force. There's a right way to live that accords with Dao, and wrong ways that fight against it. LAOZI VS. ZHUANGZI: Both Laozi and Zhuangzi agree on the concept of Dao as the fundamental pattern of reality, but they interpret it slightly differently. Laozi often presents Dao as a guiding principle, a cosmic order that can be harmonized with. Zhuangzi, on the other hand, emphasizes the Dao as something more fluid and less structured, suggesting that it operates without conscious intention or purpose. KEY DISTINCTION: Laozi advocates aligning oneself with the Dao to live harmoniously, while Zhuangzi promotes radical freedom, suggesting that all beings follow the Dao naturally, without effort. CHARACTERISTICS OF DAO: - Dao IS: Source of all things, ever-present, nameless and formless, accessible through alignment - Dao is NOT: A creator god, somewhere "else," a thing among things, reached through worship INEFFABLE: Both philosophers assert that the Dao is ineffable—beyond words and human understanding. Laozi opens the Tao Te Ching with the idea that "The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao," highlighting its mysterious and elusive nature. Zhuangzi expands this notion by illustrating how human logic and language fall short of grasping the Dao, which is too vast and boundless to be constrained by human categories or rational thought. While Laozi suggests reverence and simplicity as ways to approach the Dao's mystery, Zhuangzi often presents humor, paradox, and stories to show the futility of trying to control or understand the Dao intellectually. Teaching tip: Students often want to compare Dao to God in Western monotheism. Key difference: Dao is not a personal being who creates, commands, or answers prayers. It's more like gravity or natural law—but with ethical/spiritual implications. You don't obey it out of duty; you align with it to flourish.

De (德) — Virtue/Power

The Second Key Term

De is often translated as "virtue" but means something specific:

The Dao as expressed in individual things
Each thing's natural potency or power
What makes something authentically itself

Think of it this way:

Dao = the ocean | De = the wave's particular shape

A tree's De is expressed when it grows naturally. Forced into an unnatural shape, its De is damaged.

Compare to Confucian De →

Wu-Wei (無為) — Non-Action

The Central Practice

Wu-wei = "non-action"

Does NOT mean:

Laziness
Doing nothing
Resignation

DOES mean:

No forcing
Effortless effort
With the grain

🏊 The Swimmer

Works WITH the current, not against it.

🔪 The Butcher

Cuts along natural joints—knife never dulls.

This is the concept most misunderstood by Western readers. Wu-wei is not "do nothing." It's "don't force." A skilled athlete in "the zone" is practicing wu-wei — total engagement, zero strain.

Wu-Wei: The Water Metaphor

"The highest good is like water.
Water benefits all things and does not compete.
It flows in places people reject and so is like the Dao."

— Daodejing, Chapter 8

Water: Takes the shape of its container. Seeks the lowest place. Overcomes the hard and strong. Never forces, always succeeds.

📸 Image needed: "water flowing around rocks stream nature"
Suggested caption: Water — the Daoist model for effective action — yields to obstacles yet shapes stone over time

ACTING IN HARMONY WITH NATURAL ORDER: In Daoist philosophy, both Laozi and Zhuangzi emphasize the importance of aligning oneself with the natural flow of the universe. Laozi, in the Tao Te Ching, describes how acting in harmony with the Dao means moving with the natural order rather than against it. This harmonious action results in effortless success because it flows with the universe's inherent patterns. KEY INSIGHT: The idea of "acting in harmony" doesn't mean no action at all, but rather appropriate, natural action that arises without force or overthinking. SPONTANEITY IS KEY: Spontaneity, or ziran (自然), is essential in Daoism because it is through spontaneous and natural actions that one can achieve wu-wei (無為), the principle of effortless action or non-doing. Laozi and Zhuangzi both highlight that trying to impose control or rigid plans on life leads to resistance and struggle. By being spontaneous and adaptable, an individual can flow with the Dao and act in accordance with nature's rhythms. Laozi's concept of wu-wei suggests doing things in such a way that they seem effortless, while Zhuangzi encourages an even deeper spontaneity, where actions arise naturally without concern for rules or conventions. ALIGNMENT WITH NATURAL RHYTHMS: When individuals embrace spontaneity and practice wu-wei, they become attuned to the underlying rhythms of the cosmos. In doing so, they act in perfect sync with the Dao. Zhuangzi describes this state as one where the distinctions between the self and the world disappear, allowing individuals to move effortlessly within the flow of life. By not forcing actions or overthinking outcomes, people find that they are better able to achieve their goals because they are working with, rather than against, the universe. KEY INSIGHT: This alignment leads to a life of balance and peace, as one no longer struggles to control outcomes but instead trusts the process of nature. The mirror metaphor is powerful: A mirror reflects things as they are, without judgment or attachment. It doesn't hold onto images after they pass. This is the ideal state of mind for the sage—responsive to the present moment without clinging to past or future. Modern application: This isn't about being passive or directionless. Think of skilled athletes in "the zone"—they're not overthinking their movements, they're flowing with the situation, responding naturally to what unfolds.

Zhuangzi (莊子)

The Second Voice of Daoism

Zhuangzi (traditionally 369–286 BCE):

Anecdotes indicate he was unpredictable and eccentric
Profound influence on Daoist thought and Chinese culture
More playful than the Daodejing
Uses stories, parables, humor
Radical perspectivism — reality looks different from different viewpoints
Celebrates spontaneity and freedom

Zhuangzi’s Way of Thinking

Relativity of Perspectives

Right and wrong depend on point of view
Human judgments are limited and partial
Wisdom requires openness and flexibility

Freedom from Constraints

Rigid rules trap the mind
Let go of status and ambition
Avoid artificial distinctions

The Ideal Person

Moves easily through change
Does not cling to fixed identities
Responds naturally rather than forcing outcomes

Wisdom is learning to wander beyond narrow viewpoints.

Zhuangzi’s Butterfly Dream

Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly, happily fluttering about. When he woke up, he was Zhuangzi again. But then he wondered: was he Zhuangzi who had dreamed of being a butterfly, or a butterfly now dreaming he was Zhuangzi?

What It Suggests

Reality may not be as solid as we assume
Identity is fluid, not fixed
Distinctions we trust may be uncertain

Philosophical Point

Challenges confidence in our perspectives
Encourages humility about what we “know”
Invites us to relax rigid boundaries between self and world

Zhuangzi teaches through wonder, not certainty.

Zhuangzi's Dream Unveiled

Daoist Philosophy Meets Descartes & Kant

Sunzi’s Art of War

5th century BCE (traditional dating)

"All warfare is based on deception."

— Art of War, ch. 1

War as Intelligence

Know yourself and know the enemy
Victory depends on information and planning
Shape what the enemy believes

War as Strategy

Avoid direct, costly confrontation
Exploit weakness rather than display strength
Preparation matters more than bravery

The best generals win with their minds before the battle begins.

Sunzi in the World of Chinese Thought

Adaptation

Strategy should be “like water”
Adjust to terrain and conditions
Rigid plans lead to failure

Winning Without Fighting

Best victory avoids battle
Disrupt plans and alliances
Force is a last resort

Philosophical Connections

Resonates with Daoist flexibility and flow
Anticipates Legalist focus on method and control
Strategy becomes a form of practical philosophy

Sunzi turns survival strategy into a philosophy of action.

Legalism: Philosophy of Winners

Context: Qin state in the west

Considered "barbarian" by eastern states
But getting STRONG
Adopting Legalist policies
By 3rd century: conquering neighbors

Legalism is the philosophy of the state that WINS. By 221 BCE, Qin conquers all.

Han Feizi 韓非子

d. 233 BCE

Student of Xunzi (human nature is bad)
Died in prison - possibly murdered by rival
Writings became Qin handbook

"When a sage rules, he governs according to the nature of men, not according to what they SHOULD be."

— Han Feizi

Legalist Principles

Laws, Not Exemplars

Clear, public, strict laws
No exceptions - even nobles

Rewards & Punishments

Automatic rewards
Severe punishments
So terrible no one dares violate

Distrust everyone: Ministers betray. Family seeks power. Only the SYSTEM can be trusted.

Goal: State Power

Centralized bureaucracy replaces hereditary lords
Officials appointed, serve at ruler's pleasure
All power flows from center
Individual happiness irrelevant

"The people are like fish; the ruler controls the water."

⏸ Pause & Process

Quick Write

You are a Warring States ruler. Which philosophy?

Confucian (virtue, ritual)
Mohist (universal love)
Daoist (do nothing)
Legalist (laws, punishments)

Write 90 sec, then show of hands

What Actually Happened

221 BCE: Qin uses Legalism to unify China
Qin Dynasty brutal and brief (221–206 BCE)
People hate Qin's harshness
206 BCE: Han Dynasty overthrows Qin
Han adopts Confucianism as state ideology

Legalism wins short-term. Confucianism wins long-term.

Why Did Confucianism Win?

Offered moral legitimacy to rulers
Educated elite preferred it
Flexible enough to incorporate other ideas
Daoism remained spiritual alternative
Legalist methods quietly used but not credited

For 2000+ years: Confucian rhetoric, Legalist methods.

Why These Debates Still Matter

Is human nature good or bad?

Can virtue govern, or do we need force?

Should government be active or minimal?

These questions shaped Chinese civilization - and ours today.

Next: Qin Dynasty

Legalism in action
Conquering all rivals
Brutal policies, standardization
Great Wall, burning books
Empire collapses in 15 years - why?

Key Terms

Dao 道 - The Way
Wu-wei 無為 - Non-action
Laozi / Daodejing
Zhuangzi

Legalism 法家
Han Feizi
Sunzi / Art of War
Yin-yang / Five Phases